Innovations within the health system and in personal behaviors played an essential role in stopping the outbreak and limiting the economic damage it created.

The death toll of the Spanish flu was not uniform. Poverty, pollution, and public action played significant roles in determining the deadliness of the outbreak.

Immigrants are less likely to have health insurance than natives. Lack of coverage and access to medical care can adversely impact public health in a pandemic.

Medical costs dropped in the short-term, as non-COVID care was deferred and may never be made up. Huge uncertainties exist regarding future trends in costs.